Self-reported dark chocolate consumption and depressive symptoms among community-dwelling older adults in Nagoya, Japan: a cross-sectional study.
Evidence regarding the association between dark chocolate consumption and depressive symptoms remains limited, particularly among older adults.
To examine the association between self-reported dark chocolate consumption and depressive symptoms among community-dwelling older adults in Nagoya, Japan.
This cross-sectional study included 3,910 adults aged ≥ 70 years, of whom 2,957 were analyzed. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Japanese version of the 15-item Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15-J). Dark chocolate consumption and depressive symptoms were assessed at the same study time point. Participants were classified into four groups: rare or no chocolate consumption, chocolate consumption without dark chocolate, dark chocolate consumption once or twice per week or more for ≤2 years, and dark chocolate consumption once or twice per week or more for >2 years. Logistic regression estimated odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) after adjustment of demographic, socioeconomic, lifestyle, and clinical covariates. Sensitivity analyses assessed robustness.
Among the 2,957 participants, 48.4% were women, and the mean age was 78.0 ± 5.0 years. Dark chocolate consumption for >2 years was reported by 24.6%. In the fully adjusted model, participants reporting dark chocolate consumption for >2 years had lower estimated odds of depressive symptoms than those who reported rare or no chocolate consumption, although the confidence interval included the null (OR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.53-1.01; p = 0.055). Multiple imputation yielded a similar estimate (OR, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.51-0.94; p = 0.020). Analyses restricted to participants with Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores ≥ 27 and ≥28 also yielded estimates in the same direction (OR, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.43-1.00; p = 0.051 and OR, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.42-1.12; p = 0.132, respectively). Among chocolate consumers, dark chocolate consumption for >2 years was associated with lower odds of depressive symptoms than chocolate consumption without dark chocolate (OR, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.43-0.88; p = 0.008).
Self-reported dark chocolate consumption for >2 years may be associated with lower odds of depressive symptoms among community-dwelling older adults in Nagoya, Japan. Prospective and interventional studies are needed to clarify the temporal and causal nature of this association.
To examine the association between self-reported dark chocolate consumption and depressive symptoms among community-dwelling older adults in Nagoya, Japan.
This cross-sectional study included 3,910 adults aged ≥ 70 years, of whom 2,957 were analyzed. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Japanese version of the 15-item Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15-J). Dark chocolate consumption and depressive symptoms were assessed at the same study time point. Participants were classified into four groups: rare or no chocolate consumption, chocolate consumption without dark chocolate, dark chocolate consumption once or twice per week or more for ≤2 years, and dark chocolate consumption once or twice per week or more for >2 years. Logistic regression estimated odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) after adjustment of demographic, socioeconomic, lifestyle, and clinical covariates. Sensitivity analyses assessed robustness.
Among the 2,957 participants, 48.4% were women, and the mean age was 78.0 ± 5.0 years. Dark chocolate consumption for >2 years was reported by 24.6%. In the fully adjusted model, participants reporting dark chocolate consumption for >2 years had lower estimated odds of depressive symptoms than those who reported rare or no chocolate consumption, although the confidence interval included the null (OR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.53-1.01; p = 0.055). Multiple imputation yielded a similar estimate (OR, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.51-0.94; p = 0.020). Analyses restricted to participants with Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores ≥ 27 and ≥28 also yielded estimates in the same direction (OR, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.43-1.00; p = 0.051 and OR, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.42-1.12; p = 0.132, respectively). Among chocolate consumers, dark chocolate consumption for >2 years was associated with lower odds of depressive symptoms than chocolate consumption without dark chocolate (OR, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.43-0.88; p = 0.008).
Self-reported dark chocolate consumption for >2 years may be associated with lower odds of depressive symptoms among community-dwelling older adults in Nagoya, Japan. Prospective and interventional studies are needed to clarify the temporal and causal nature of this association.
Authors
Nosaka Nosaka, Nakakubo Nakakubo, Abe Abe, Misu Misu, Kiuchi Kiuchi, Tsutsumimoto Tsutsumimoto, Nakamura Nakamura, Natsume Natsume, Sasaki Sasaki, Shimada Shimada, Suzuki Suzuki
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