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Liver cancer is one of the malignant tumors with high global incidence and mortality rates, with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) accounting for 90% of primary liver cancer cases. Due to the lack of specific symptoms in early-stage liver cancer, diagnosis is often delayed, leading to the majority of patients being identified at intermediate to advanced stages with poor prognoses. Early diagnosis is critical for improving patient survival; however, conventional diagnostic methods face limitations such as low sensitivity and insufficient specificity. Nanomaterials have demonstrated great potential in laboratory research to overcome the limitations of traditional detection technologies by virtue of their unique physicochemical properties. However, most of these relevant studies are still in the laboratory stage and require large-scale clinical validation. This review systematically summarizes the innovative applications of nanomaterials in liver cancer biomarker diagnostics, focusing on their mechanisms for improving detection performance, including signal amplification, targeted recognition, and system optimization. It highlights specific applications of nanomaterials in biomarker detection, discusses current challenges in nanodiagnostic technologies, and explores future development trends, aiming to provide novel perspectives for the diagnosis of liver cancer patients.